GS Paper II (Polity, Governance, Political Theory) | GS Paper IV (Ethics) | APSC – Political Theory & Ethics

Why in the news?

Recent public debates, opinion pieces, and policy discussions increasingly invoke “absolute freedom”, especially in the context of markets, technology, regulation, and the role of the State.

• These debates revive an old but crucial question in political theory: Can freedom exist without limits, and if so, for whom?

Understanding the Core Argument

• Freedom is often treated as self-evident and unproblematic, especially in classical liberalism and libertarian thought.
• However, political theory shows that freedom is a complex political value, not a raw emotion or natural instinct.
• Treating freedom as unlimited ignores the fact that freedom operates within social, economic, and institutional structures.

Limits Are Not Always the Enemy of Freedom

• Libertarian thought often assumes that the State is the main obstacle to liberty.
• This view overlooks other powerful constraints such as:
  • Markets, which shape life chances.
  • Employers, who control working conditions.
  • Families and social norms, which sustain hierarchies.
  • Economic concentration, which limits real choice.
• Sociologist Niklas Luhmann argued that the environment itself is a universal limit to freedom, meaning freedom is always relational, not absolute.

Why the State Matters in a Democracy

• A democratic State is not merely a coercive force but a regulator of power.
• It prevents one person’s freedom from turning into another person’s exploitation.
• For example:
  • Labour laws protect workers from employer domination.
  • Child protection laws limit parental abuse.
  • Anti-monopoly regulations check economic concentration.
• Even libertarians rely on the State to enforce property rights, revealing an internal contradiction.

Freedom, Order and Political Theory

• Thomas Hobbes, in Leviathan, warned that a society without order leads to chaos, not freedom.
• Pierre-Joseph Proudhon defined freedom as the creation of order without domination.
• Isaiah Berlin clarified the conflict between:
  • Freedom to (positive liberty: ability to act).
  • Freedom from (negative liberty: absence of interference).
• Because these freedoms collide, absolute liberty is impossible.

Why Unlimited Freedom Leads to Domination

• Freedom is a scarce social good, not everyone can enjoy unlimited freedom simultaneously.
• In authoritarian systems, rulers enjoy maximum freedom precisely because others do not.
• When freedom lacks rules:
  • The powerful dominate.
  • Inequality is justified as “natural”.
  • Hierarchy is disguised as merit.
• Thinkers like Ayn Rand glorified “exceptional individuals”, turning freedom into a privilege of the elite rather than a shared condition.

A Simple Everyday Example

• Traffic rules may seem like restrictions. But in reality, they balance the freedoms of:
  • Drivers,
  • Cyclists,
  • Pedestrians.
• As Friedrich Ebert said: “Every freedom that several people share requires an order.”

Key Terms Explained

• Libertarianism: A philosophy prioritising minimal State intervention and individual autonomy.
• Positive Liberty: Freedom to act or achieve goals.
• Negative Liberty: Freedom from external interference.
• Domination: Control exercised without accountability.
• Naturalistic Fallacy: Treating what exists (“is”) as what ought to be (“should be”).

Conclusion

• Freedom does not emerge automatically; it must be politically negotiated, structured, and protected.
• True freedom is freedom from domination, not unchecked power.
• Without institutions, freedom collapses into the rule of the strongest.
• A genuinely free society is one where freedom is widely shared, not monopolised by a few.

Exam Hook

Key Takeaways

• Absolute freedom is neither possible nor desirable.
• Democratic institutions organise freedom to ensure equality and dignity.

Mains Question
“Freedom without limits often results in domination rather than liberty.” Discuss with reference to political theory and contemporary democratic governance.

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