Q. Discuss the causes of urban flooding in India. How can sustainable urban planning contribute to flood resilience? (150 words)

Urban Flooding – Definition

• Intense/prolonged rainfall overwhelms urban drainage → water accumulation in streets/buildings.
• Causes: poor drainage, encroachment on water bodies, rapid unplanned urbanization.

Causes of Urban Flooding in India

1. Rapid Urbanization & Poor Planning
   • Encroachment on floodplains, concretization of drains.
   • Example: 2022 Bengaluru floods due to construction in low-lying/lake bed areas.
2. Inadequate Drainage Systems
   • Outdated, undersized infrastructure.
   • Example: Mumbai’s century-old drains overwhelmed in monsoon 2023.
3. Climate Change & Extreme Weather
   • Increased frequency/intensity of rainfall.
   • Example: 2023 Delhi floods due to Yamuna overflow after record rains.
4. Solid Waste Mismanagement
   • Blocked drains due to garbage/plastic waste.
   • Example: 2023 Himachal floods – clogged channels worsened flooding.
5. Loss of Water Bodies/Green Spaces
   • Reduced natural flood buffers.
   • Example: Chennai’s Pallikaranai marshland shrinkage → recurrent floods.
6. Deforestation in Catchment Areas
   • Increased runoff & siltation → more severe downstream flooding.
   • Example: Assam floods affecting Guwahati.

Sustainable Urban Planning for Flood Resilience

• Integrated Watershed Management – river basin approach (Room for the River, Netherlands).
• Green Infrastructure/Nature-based Solutions – rain gardens, bioswales, permeable pavements.
• Sponge City Concept – absorb & reuse rainfall (Mumbai pilot project).
• Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) – slow/reduce runoff; strict zoning laws.
• Restoration of Water Bodies/Wetlands – revive lakes, marshes (Bengaluru’s Jakkur Lake).
• Community Engagement & Early Warning Systems – public participation + alerts (adapted from Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan).

Conclusion

• Shift to sustainable, nature-based urban planning.
• Align with SDGs 6 (Clean Water), 11 (Sustainable Cities), 13 (Climate Action).
• Combine adaptive infrastructure with community resilience for flood-proof cities.

Q. Critically examine the concept of ‘disaster-resilient livelihoods’. How can it be promoted in disaster-prone regions of India? (250 words)

Disaster-Resilient Livelihoods – Definition

• Capacity to sustain or quickly recover livelihoods after disasters.
• Capacities:
  • Adaptive – adjust to potential damage.
  • Absorptive – absorb shocks/stresses.
  • Transformative – create new systems when old ones fail.

Strengths

1. Holistic approach – integrates social, economic, environmental aspects.
2. Proactive stance – pre-disaster preparedness focus.
3. Sustainable development – aligns with SDGs 1 & 13.
4. Community empowerment – uses local knowledge & participation.

Limitations

1. Complexity – multi-sector coordination needed.
2. Resource-intensive – high financial/technical demands.
3. Context-specific – not universally applicable.
4. Measurement challenges – resilience hard to quantify.
5. Risk of maladaptation – poor design may increase vulnerability.

Promoting Disaster-Resilient Livelihoods in India

1. Financial Services

• Microfinance, insurance, emergency funds, low-interest loans.

2. Risk Assessment & Mapping

• NDEM for real-time monitoring.
• Satellite/GIS mapping (ISRO Bhuvan flood hazard zonation).

3. Climate-Smart Agriculture

• Drought-resistant crops (ICAR chickpea varieties).
• Agroforestry (ICRAF in Bundelkhand).

4. Livelihood Diversification

• Eco-tourism (Himalayan Homestay Program, Ladakh).

5. Financial Inclusion & Risk Transfer

• Expand PMFBY coverage; faster claims (Beed model, Maharashtra).

6. Infrastructure Development

• Nature-based flood solutions (Room for River, Kerala).

7. Technological Integration

• AI & big data forecasting (Google flood alerts in Patna).
• Disaster communication apps (NDMA Safetipin).

8. Strengthen Local Governance

• Urban Risk Reduction programs (UNDP in 56 Indian cities).

Conclusion

• Essential for vulnerable regions.
• Needs policy reform + livelihood diversification + social protection + climate adaptation.
• Builds resilient communities and safeguards livelihoods.

Q. Discuss the factors contributing to the increasing frequency of landslides in the Himalayan region and their implications. Suggest sustainable mitigation strategies that can be implemented to address this growing concern. (250 Words)

Landslides in the Himalayan Region – Definition

• Downward movement of soil, rock, debris under gravity.
• Common in geologically young, tectonically active, climatically diverse
• Causes: Natural + Anthropogenic

Reasons for Landslides in the Himalayas

Natural Factors

1. Fragile Ecosystem – tectonic/neo-tectonic activity, erosion, weathering, rain/snow.
2. Earthquakes – Indian & Eurasian plate convergence → fractures & slope instability.
3. Debris flow & groundwater – weakens slope structure.
4. Climate-induced extreme events – avalanches, GLOFs, LLOFs, flash floods.
5. Climate change impacts – glacier melt, biodiversity loss, increased vulnerability.
6. Geological composition – limestone prone to dissolution & slope weakening.
7. Westerly Disturbance + Monsoon confluence → concentrated rainfall in J&K, HP, Uttarakhand.

Anthropogenic Factors

1. Road construction, tunneling, mining, quarrying.
2. Deforestation, urbanization, agriculture, excessive tourism.
3. Hydroelectric projects altering slope stability & drainage.
4. Increased exposure of settlements/infrastructure.
5. Example: 2013 Kedarnath tragedy – unplanned development altered drainage, worsened erosion.

Mitigation Strategies

1. Resilience Building

• Network of real-time monitoring sensors.

2. Technology for Monitoring

• Rain gauges, piezometers, inclinometers, extensometers, InSAR, total stations.
• Prioritize densely populated/built-up areas.

3. Integrated Early Warning System (EWS)

• AI + ML for hazard prediction & alerts.

4. Himalayan States Council

• Interstate collaboration for knowledge/resource sharing.

5. Sustainable Socio-economic Development

• Balanced use of glaciers, springs, minerals, medicinal plants.

6. Environmental Considerations

• Proper town planning, effective drainage, scientific slope cutting, retaining walls.

7. Sustainable Tourism

• Eco-tourism, biodiversity conservation, local community benefits.

8. Sustainable Government Projects

• Environmental assessments, eco-friendly tech, local participation, inter-sectoral coordination.

Conclusion

• Landslides = complex natural + human-induced problem.
• Solutions must combine geological understanding + climate adaptation + land-use regulation + community engagement for long-term resilience in the Himalayan region.